Chemistry of preservative used in food industry Assignment

Chemistry of preservative used in food industry - Assignment Example The natural type occurs with its individual natural neutralizers different from the one prepared in laboratories. The natural form does not have preservative action since it have no toxicity. Sodium benzoate produced in chemical laboratories is cheap and toxic which kills living organisms (McKinney 358). Also benzoic acid is an element additive used in food industries, its low cost, ease of absorption in products, lack of color and low rate of toxic form made benzoic acid to be become one of the widely used preservatives word wide. It occurs in pure form as colorless; it’s soluble to a limited extent in water (Taormina 114). In conclusion, chemical preservatives are widely used to put off or slow down both chemical and organic corrosion of food for future use. Chemical deterioration includes oxidation and food browning, while organic corrosion involves dilapidation of food by

African American Stereotypes Essay Example for Free

African American Stereotypes Essay A stereotype is a popular belief about specific types of individuals. Stereotypes are standardized and simplified conceptions of groups based on some prior assumptions. African Americans have been perceived to be someone they are not in the media, history, and in everyday life. Although some stereotypes are true, many are harmful and inaccurate. African American stereotypes are generalizations about the behavior of African Americans originated mainly in American culture and derived from how slave owners used to view slaves. African American stereotypes allow someone from getting to know a person their self. If someone has one bad interaction with an African American, they will limit their selves from getting to know how African Americans truly are. They will base every other African American off of that one bad altercation. The most damaging features of African American stereotypes are the influence they have on young African Americans. Young people tend to limit them selves because of stereotypes. African Americans are unaware that they play into and help to reinforce the African American stereotype. They believe that the African American stereotypes imposed upon them, will limit them in life. The stereotype that â€Å"African Americans will complain that the system is set up to prevent black people from attaining certain positions†, is very common. If they accept these stereotypes and believe them they will limit them selves. Barack Obama who holds the highest office in America is a good example of how this stereotype is false. Some stereotypes are set up to be positive, this does not make the practice of perpetuating these African American stereotypes right. At A N University students (African Americans and Caucasians) were asked to give some stereotypes of African Americans. The current African American stereotypes are thought to be criminal, poor, athletic, religious, musically gifted, loud, dumb, lazy, simple-minded, obnoxious, talk with slang, opinionated, and dress urban, wear baggy pants, and have cornrows. Kool Aid , Chicken, and watermelon was also thought to be a specialty meal in their household. They were thought to live in the lower class neighbor hoods, have one parent, multiple siblings, be rather street smart versus ook smart, involved in gangs. When a group of African American children were asked in a local Baltimore elementary school what they wanted to become when they grow up they had many common answers. Many boys wanted to be a professional basketball player, football player, and become a rapper. Few wanted to be doctors, police officers, fire fighters, entrepreneurs, and nurses. Many African American males are thought to be thugs, drug dealers, high school dropouts, deadbeat fathers, janitors, trash man. A thug is someone who is going through struggles, has gone through struggles, and continues to live day by day with nothing for them. † (Tupac Shakur) No young man wants to grow up and become a thug. Tupac Shakur said that the African American trend of sagging pants is an un organized protest. The sagging pants is a part of someone attitude. It is their way to relate. It is a form of character. A young mans father may not sag his pants but, he may see his idol sagging his pants and want to relate to or admire him. Morehouse professor Bryan T. Marks held a panel at Morehouse College about African American stereotypes. He said that there are more black men enrolled in jail rather than jail. He also stated that African Americans are the most religious, but most likely to get a divorce. There are more black men in jail and prison than in college, but there are more college-age black men in college than in jail and prison. Statistics show that there were an estimated 791,600 black men in jail and prison in 2000 and a count of 603,032 in college in 1999. The more reliable U. S. Census Bureau reports were that 816,000 black men in college in 2000. When people think of black men in jail they use the entire age range of black males when making these comparisons. The age range for college-going males is generally 18 to 24, not the 18 to 55 (and up) range of the jail and prison population. Viewed this way, the ratio of black men in college compared with jail and prison is 4-to-1. Black slang is a form of informal spoken language whose origins are most often associated with African Americas. Slang is a way for young African Americans to express themselves. Many other races copy their expressions because they think it is cool. Some commonly used terms are words such as; gangsta, bling, grills, hang, hood, benjamins, dopes, aight, holla, crib, playa, roll up, straight, yo, and shawty. The Stereotype that Black women have bad attitudes is very common. In fact, it’s been around so long that it has earned the name, Angry Black Women Syndrome. Do Black women have attitudes? My guess is that most black women would fall into the unique personality type. That is a person characterized as quiet, determined, independent, serious, and interested in trying to better her self. â€Å"The idea that Black women are a species of neck rolling, lip smacking, finger snapping, ball busting sub-humans come from? People, who have no contact with Black women outside of retail shopping, see Black women going off on their husbands, boyfriends, kids, co-workers, even bosses with no constraint, remorse, or respect for authority and societal norms on sitcoms, talk shows, reality shows, news clips and even commercials. â€Å"

Childhood Obesity: A Public Health Issue Essay -- Obesity Epidemic

Obesity rates in the United States are alarming, with more than one-third of U.S. adults and 17% of children qualifying as obese with a Body Mass Index greater than 30.0 (Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 2015). Even more frightening is the growth rate of this crippling health epidemic; between 1980 and 2014, obesity has doubled for adults and tripled for children (CDC, 2015). The physical consequences of rising obesity rates in our country include an abundance of physical ailments including type-2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, sleep apnea, arthritis, elevated cholesterol, and even some cancers. Additionally, obesity-related health care costs to our country are estimated at $147 billion annually, plus the costs of productivity lost at work and in the community (CDC, 2015). With 300,000 annual deaths attributable to obesity, it remains one of the leading causes of premature death in America (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (USDHHS), n.d.). While obesity is pervasive th roughout all socioeconomic and cultural groups, there are certainly social factors contributing to this state of health. Non-Hispanic blacks have the highest rates of obesity, followed by Hispanics and then whites (CDC, 2015). Additionally, links between obesity and poverty have also been suggested (Bellafante, 2013). Though this is a national crisis, the disparities in affliction between different socioeconomic and ethnic groups demonstrate the strong influence of social determinants of health and the need for upstream interventions to combat this growing disease, particularly in vulnerable children. The threat seems overwhelming to the youth facing the hurdles of poor nutrition and inactivity compounded by society’s failure to protect them, and wi... ...ies in their school lunches, lawmakers say. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from: http://articles.latimes.com/2012/oct/11/nation/la-na-nn-congress-school-lunch-20121011 Stanhope, M., Lancaster, J. (2012). Public Health Nursing: Population-Centered Health Care in the Community. Elsevier: Maryland Heights, MO. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (USDHH). (nd). Office of the Surgeon General. Overweight and Obesity: Health Consequences. Retrieved from: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/calls/obesity/fact_consequences.html ‘We Are Hungry:’ Students protest lunch guidelines in YouTube video. (2012, September 26) FoxNews.com. Retrieved from: http://www.foxnews.com/health/2012/09/26/high-school-students-parody-new-school-lunch-guidelines-in-youtube-video/ We Are Hungry. 17 September, 2012. YouTube. Retrieved from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2IB7NDUSBOo Childhood Obesity: A Public Health Issue Essay -- Obesity Epidemic Obesity rates in the United States are alarming, with more than one-third of U.S. adults and 17% of children qualifying as obese with a Body Mass Index greater than 30.0 (Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 2015). Even more frightening is the growth rate of this crippling health epidemic; between 1980 and 2014, obesity has doubled for adults and tripled for children (CDC, 2015). The physical consequences of rising obesity rates in our country include an abundance of physical ailments including type-2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, sleep apnea, arthritis, elevated cholesterol, and even some cancers. Additionally, obesity-related health care costs to our country are estimated at $147 billion annually, plus the costs of productivity lost at work and in the community (CDC, 2015). With 300,000 annual deaths attributable to obesity, it remains one of the leading causes of premature death in America (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (USDHHS), n.d.). While obesity is pervasive th roughout all socioeconomic and cultural groups, there are certainly social factors contributing to this state of health. Non-Hispanic blacks have the highest rates of obesity, followed by Hispanics and then whites (CDC, 2015). Additionally, links between obesity and poverty have also been suggested (Bellafante, 2013). Though this is a national crisis, the disparities in affliction between different socioeconomic and ethnic groups demonstrate the strong influence of social determinants of health and the need for upstream interventions to combat this growing disease, particularly in vulnerable children. The threat seems overwhelming to the youth facing the hurdles of poor nutrition and inactivity compounded by society’s failure to protect them, and wi... ...ies in their school lunches, lawmakers say. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from: http://articles.latimes.com/2012/oct/11/nation/la-na-nn-congress-school-lunch-20121011 Stanhope, M., Lancaster, J. (2012). Public Health Nursing: Population-Centered Health Care in the Community. Elsevier: Maryland Heights, MO. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (USDHH). (nd). Office of the Surgeon General. Overweight and Obesity: Health Consequences. Retrieved from: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/calls/obesity/fact_consequences.html ‘We Are Hungry:’ Students protest lunch guidelines in YouTube video. (2012, September 26) FoxNews.com. Retrieved from: http://www.foxnews.com/health/2012/09/26/high-school-students-parody-new-school-lunch-guidelines-in-youtube-video/ We Are Hungry. 17 September, 2012. YouTube. Retrieved from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2IB7NDUSBOo

An experiment to investigate the effect of changing the concentration E

An experiment to investigate the effect of changing the concentration of hydrochloric acid on the rate of reaction with sodium thiosulpahte. Aim I am trying to find out how the concentration of hydrochloric acid affects the reaction time with sodium thiosulpahte. If a clear solution of sodium thiosulphate is mixed with hydrochloric acid then a reaction will occur where a creamy-yellow precipitate of sulphur is produced. H20 Text Box: + Text Box: + Text Box: + Na2S203 2HCL Text Box: + 2NaCl SO2 S Reactants Products The sulphur takes a while to form and starts to turn the water cloudy after a short time. You cannot tell when the reaction has stopped so a cross drawn on a piece of paper in pencil can be sued to do this experiment. The liquid is placed on top of the cross in a beaker and it is timed how long it takes for the cross to disappear when viewed through the liquid. This experiment can be used to investigate the effects of concentration and temperature on rate of reaction. This is the experiment I am going to do because I am trying to see how the concentration of acid affects the rate of reaction. Variables In my investigation I could change: * Concentration of sodium thiosulphate * Temperature of solution * Concentration of acid * Type of acid * Volume of thiosulphate * Volume of acid I am going to change the concentration of acid. I will keep all the other variables the same. The independent variable will change the dependant variable- the rate of reaction. Prediction I predict that the less concentrated the acid is then the longer it will take for the sodium thiosulphate to react. If you increase the temp, increase concentration, add a catalyst or the solid reactant is crushed up into smaller bits then the rate of reaction will always increase. Apparatus * Sodium thiosulphate * Hydrochloric acid * Measuring cylinder * Beaker * Paper * Pencil * Distilled water * Stop watch * Conical flask Safety Goggles should be worn to prevent any of the solution from going into the eye. Everyone should behave sensibly to prevent accidents. Collision theory The rate of reaction depends on how often and how hard the reacting particles collide with each other. The particles have to collide hard enough in order to react. The rate of reaction can be increase... ...2 and 3 only have a 1second difference in time. These results are too close together and cannot be reliable. These results aren't adequate for a firm conclusion as it has a few anomalous results and on the average times they don't have a large enough gap between them e.g. 34 and 36. The experiment should be carried out more times for a more accurate result. The procedure used was suitable but produced quite unreliable results as the cross on the paper may have not fully disappeared when the other person was told to stop the timer as this is what we did. If the person looking at the cross and observing when it disappeared changed then the person's opinion on when it has disappeared may make it an inaccurate test so it would have to be kept the same person all the time. If I did the experiment again I would probably take more time measuring out the solutions and it would probably be a better idea for the person observing to see when the cross can no longer be seen to have the stop watch so they can stop it at the exact time they can no longer see it. It could also be improved if the experiment was carried out more times as a better average could be produced.

Holmes’ character Essay

By completing some further research on the Internet, I ascertained that Holmes’ character was actually modelled on the mentor of Doyle, Dr Joseph Bell:  Doyle admired the work of Dr. Bell who utilized observation and logic in the medical field. Doyle decided to mimic the methods of Dr. Bell when he developed his fictional detective. Doyle was always adamant that Holmes was indeed, based on Dr. Bell. The readers of the stories would have been aware of this, allowing them to relate to the story. Another method that Doyle uses to allow the reader to relate to the characters is by using a narrator, Watson. His hugely biased view tells of Holmes’ brilliance, and at the same time allows an insight into the mind of the hero, and with it the attitudes of the people at that time. For this reason, Watson is used cunningly to reflect the era. In stark contrast to Holmes’ debonair attitude, Reseck is much more down-to-earth, and works by very different methods. He is not an intellectual, but works impulsively, as did many people at that time. He works quietly in the background, and is an introvert loner. He works alone, (without a sidekick, unlike Holmes) and he â€Å"always knew if anybody was close to him†. The distance he keeps to his own family, especially Al, his brother, shows this wish for solitude. This attitude is the opposite of the eccentric Holmes who can always be seen and heard. These differing attitudes significantly reflect the eras; the confidence of Victorian England versus the seclusion of Prohibition U.S.A. Chandler reflects this isolation by using derisive adverbs to describe Reseck, such as mockingly and gravely. As mentioned above, Holmes appears to be flawless. In contrast, Reseck is shown to be human and fallible by the elk’s tooth that he relies upon for good luck. Despite thi s, he is not inferior to Holmes, but is the result of a very grave time. Chandler does not describe Reseck as an attractive man. He says Reseck is:  Short, pale, and paunchy middle-aged man  The reason for this is that readers from that time could not relate to a flawless, attractive man. Chandler has used an ugly character to achieve this. In addition, Reseck’s sleight-of-hand shows the need for being alert in an opportunist time. Al, Tony’s brother, sums Reseck up when he says:  You take it slow  In summary, the characters are greatly different. Where Holmes is elegant, handsome and arrogant, Reseck is paunchy, quiet and thoughtful in his actions. When further analysing the characters, much can be achieved by comparing them to their arch-villain. This will help in analysing the two eras. Holmes’ arch villain is Dr Grimesby-Roylott. The two men are greatly different, with Holmes plotting his brains against Grimesby-Roylott’s brawn. The two confront each other only once, with Holmes naturally coming out on top. This was when Grimesby-Roylott challenged Holmes in his Baker Street office. Holmes is undaunted by his enemy’s aggressive attitude, and shows utter contempt to his threats. This is demonstrated when he ridicules the aggressive Grimesby-Roylott:  Ã¢â‚¬Å"What has she been saying to you?† screamed the old man furiously.  Ã¢â‚¬Å"But I have heard that the crocuses promise well,† continued my companion imperturbably. Grimesby-Roylott then attempts to use his strength to scare the composed Holmes. He bends a poker then hurls it into the fire. Holmes, unconcerned, then picks the poker up and unbends it with ease: â€Å"I might have shown him that my grip was not much more feeble than his own.† This reinforces the idea of Holmes’ superiority over everyone else. This symbolism is a precursor to the end of the tale, and the reader knows that Holmes will eventually prevail over his enemy.  In I’ll be Waiting, there is no arch villain, hinting at the corruptness of the times. However, when Reseck meets with another character, Al, he is insulted, and in the end is seen to be inferior. Al calls Tony his â€Å"little fat brother†, which is obviously derogatory. Reseck does not have the same superiority over others as Holmes, which shows how different the times and self-esteem of the characters are. As well as the heroes that are portrayed in the stories, the language and accents that are used also depict the eras. In Holmes’ Baker Street location, he speaks in very proper English, again trying to reinforce his superiority. He is suave and soothing, speaking in a cultured accent, especially when talking to Helen Stoner. He uses archaic language, such as ‘pray’, and never abbreviates his words. All sentences are grammatically correct, and often contain archaic clauses. An example of this is:  And now, Watson, this is too serious for dawdling, especially as the old man is aware that we are interesting ourselves in his affairs; so if you are ready, we shall call a cab and drive to Waterloo. Reseck, in contrast, speaks in argot, slick language. There are many slang words and phrases that he uses. Examples of this are:  The guy stopped the big one. Cold.  And  Talk it up copper. My mind reader just quit.  Other cynical wisecracks show the alertness and the need for being streetwise in such an opportunist time. His accent is also colloquial, showing the lower class of people he deals with, compared to Holmes’ London. The settings of these stories show where the interest of the people lay, and can give an insight into life at that time. Location also plays an important role in reflecting the times. The Speckled Band is set in bachelor rooms in Baker Street London, a very affluent area of West London. This shows the prosperity and superiority of Holmes, and with it his success in life. The second part of the story in set in an English country mansion, again an affluent location. The admiration that the Victorian people had for the rich and successful in life, envying them greatly is demonstrated by this. In contrast, I’ll be Waiting is set in a seedy and dangerous world, in a crime-ridden inner city, controlled by gangs running the illegal alcohol trade. An example of this is the ‘Trouble Boys’ who are stereotypical gang-members of that time. They use colloquial language and the way that they turn their collars up and hide in the shadows indicate to the reader that they are clichà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½d criminals. Reseck works in a hotel called the Windermere Hotel, another undesirable location. I’ll be Waiting appeals to 1940’s readers, as they had more interest in the reality of life, rather than on the lives of the rich aristocracy.

The Top 10 Unsolved Questions in Economics

The Top 10 Unsolved Questions in Economics There are many problems in the economic world that have yet to be solved, and fortunately, Wikipedia  has compiled a list of the greatest ones to date - from what caused the Industrial Revolution to whether or not money supply is endogenous. Although great economists like Craig Newmark and members of the AEA have taken a stab at solving these tough issues, the true solution to these problems - that is to say the generally understood and accepted truth of the matter - has yet to come to light. To say a question is unsolved implies that the question potentially has a solution, in the same way 2x 4 8 has a solution. The difficulty is, most of the questions on this list are so vague that they cannot possibly have a solution. Nevertheless, here are the top ten unsolved economic problems. 1. What Caused the Industrial Revolution? Although there are many factors at play in causing the Industrial Revolution, the economic answer to this question has yet to be sussed out. However, no event has a single cause - the Civil War was not wholly caused by slavery and World War I was not wholly caused by the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand. This is a question without a solution, as events have numerous causes and determining which ones were more important than others naturally involves some subjectivity. While some might argue that a strong middle-class, mercantilism and the development of an empire, and an easily moveable and growing urban population who increasingly believed in materialism led to the Industrial Revolution in England, others might argue the countrys isolation from European continental problems or the nations common market led to this growth. 2. What Is the Proper Size and Scope of Government? This question again has no real objective answer, because people will always have differing views on the argument of efficiency versus equity in governance. Even if a population managed to fully understand the exact trade-off that was being made in each case, the size and scope of a government largely depend on its citizenrys dependence on its influence. New countries, like the United States in its early days, relied on a centralized government to maintain order and oversee rapid growth and expansion. Over time, it has had to decentralize some of its authority to the state and local levels in order to better represent its vastly diverse population. Still, some might argue the government should be larger and control more due to our reliance on it domestically and abroad. 3. What Truly Caused the Great Depression? Much like the first question, the cause of the Great Depression cant be pinpointed because so many factors were at play in the eventual crash of the United States economies in the late 1920s. However, unlike the Industrial Revolution, whose many factors also included advances outside of economy, the Great Depression was primarily caused by a catastrophic intersection of economic factors. Economists commonly believe five factors ultimately resulted in the Great Depression: the stock market crash in 1929, over 3,000 banks failing throughout the 1930s, reduction in purchasing (demand) in the market itself, American policy with Europe, and drought conditions in Americas farmland. 4. Can We Explain the Equity Premium Puzzle? In short, no we have not yet. This puzzle refers to the strange occurrence of returns on stocks being much higher than returns on government bonds over the past century, and economists are still baffled by what could truly be the cause. Some posit that either risk aversion may be at play here, or antithetically that large consumption variability accounted for the discrepancy in return capital. However, the notion that stocks are riskier than bonds isnt enough to account for this risk aversion as a means to alleviate arbitrage opportunities within a countrys economy. 5. How Is It Possible to Provide Causal Explanations Using Mathematical Economics? Because mathematical economics relies on purely logical constructions, some might wonder how an economist might use causal explanations in their theories, but this problem isnt quite that difficult to solve. Like physics, which can provide causal explanations like a projectile traveled 440 feet because it was launched at point x from angle y at velocity z, etc., mathematical economics can explain the correlation between events in a market that follow the logical functions of its core principles. 6. Is There an Equivalent of Black-Scholes for Futures Contract Pricing? The Black-Scholes formula estimates, with relative accuracy, the price of European-style options in a trading market. Its creation led to a newfound legitimacy of the operations of options in markets globally, including the Chicago Board Options Exchange, and is often used by participants of options markets to predict future returns. Although variations of this formula, including notably the Black formula, have been made in financial economic analyses, this still proves to be the most accurate prediction formula for markets around the world, so there is still yet to be an equivalent introduced to the options market. 7. What Is the Microeconomic Foundation of Inflation? If we treat money such as any other commodity in our economy and as such is subject to the same supply and demand forces, reason would suggest it would be just as susceptible to inflation as goods and services are. However, if you consider this question like one considers the question of which came first, the chicken or the egg, it may be best left as a rhetorical one. The basis, of course, is that we do treat our currency like a good or service, but where this originates doesnt truly have one answer. 8. Is the Money Supply Endogenous? Wikipedia follows up this question with a simple statement: Mainstream economics claims that it is; post-Keynesian economics claims that it is not. However, the issue isnt uniquely about endogeneity, which, strictly speaking, is a modeling assumption. If the question is properly constructed, I think this could be considered one of the key problems in economics. 9. How Does Price Formation Occur? In any given market, prices are formed by a variety of factors, and just like the question of the microeconomic foundation of inflation, theres no true answer to its origins, though one explanation posits that each seller in a market forms a price depending on probabilities within the market which in turn depends on the probabilities of other sellers, meaning that prices are determined by how these sellers interact with one another and their consumers. However, this idea that prices are determined by the markets overlooks several key factors including that some goods or service markets dont have a set market price as some markets are volatile while others are stable - all depending on the veracity of information available to buyers and sellers. 10. What Causes the Variation of Income Among Ethnic Groups? Much like the causes of the Great Depression and the Industrial Revolution, the exact cause of income disparity between ethnic groups cannot be pinpointed to a single source. Instead, a variety of factors ​are at play depending on where one is observing the data, though it mostly comes down to institutionalized prejudices within the job market, availability of resources to different ethnic and their relative economic groups, and employment opportunities in localities featuring varying degrees of ethnic population density.

Free Essays on Free MInd

of their supposed role models and think it’s OK to follow in their foot steps. Peer pressure is another big factor. Teenagers rely a great deal upon their peers for guidance and support. Sometimes this is the wrong path to take. Friendship is a wrong word that is thrown around a little to loosely now days. Teens let their â€Å"friend† talk them into doing things that they would not normally do. Drugs and theft are brought into these relationship also. Today’s youth must learn to be leaders, not followers. Society can often be a harsh world to live in for a teen. To be considered "in" you must fit the role of the "perfect person." As young adults, teens are trying to find themselves. They look toward celebrities and leaders for a goal. They try to buy the right clothes, wear the nicest shoes, and be present at all the social events. To fit in, some are pushed to the edge. If you are caught in a dark alley at the wrong time, you might be killed just for your name brand shoes. Competition among fellow teens leads to jealousy and jealousy leads to violent acts.... Free Essays on Free MInd Free Essays on Free MInd In today’s society, the teenage population has experienced an increase in violence. Teens face many situations that cause these problems. Several factors are mass media, per pressure, and society’s view on the â€Å"perfect† person. Television, radio, and news papers are all ways of transferring messages to people. One might see a violent movie and decide to reenact the scenes thus causing harm to one’s self or to other. Hidden meanings of racism and hate are put into music. Teens hear the words of their supposed role models and think it’s OK to follow in their foot steps. Peer pressure is another big factor. Teenagers rely a great deal upon their peers for guidance and support. Sometimes this is the wrong path to take. Friendship is a wrong word that is thrown around a little to loosely now days. Teens let their â€Å"friend† talk them into doing things that they would not normally do. Drugs and theft are brought into these relationship also. Today’s youth must learn to be leaders, not followers. Society can often be a harsh world to live in for a teen. To be considered "in" you must fit the role of the "perfect person." As young adults, teens are trying to find themselves. They look toward celebrities and leaders for a goal. They try to buy the right clothes, wear the nicest shoes, and be present at all the social events. To fit in, some are pushed to the edge. If you are caught in a dark alley at the wrong time, you might be killed just for your name brand shoes. Competition among fellow teens leads to jealousy and jealousy leads to violent acts....

Effecting America One Scandal at a Time

Effecting America One Scandal at a Time Free Online Research Papers The idea of checks and balances was an idea that arose during the composition of the U.S. Constitution. Checks and balances were created so that no one single branch of government (which includes legislative, judiciary, and executive) would become too powerful. This concept prevents a tyranny from controlling the United States, or any illegal activities to take place within the government. One key example of the power the judiciary and legislative branches have over the executive branch is the Watergate Scandal. The Watergate Scandal is a prime example of how theses checks and balances come into play. Also, the events of Watergate show how even the president (executive branch) is answerable to the judicial and legislative branches. Though Nixon had many strong characteristics of a successful leader, â€Å"Nixon’s public actions were nothing compared to what he had done to ensure his re-election.† (Carnes, and Garraty 640) â€Å"In reaction to Daniel Ellsberg’s leak of the Pentagon Papers (papers that talked about how the American Government had misled the American people on the progress in Vietnam), Nixon set up a secret unit called â€Å"the plumbers†. This group was ordered to carry out various illegal activities in the name of â€Å"national security†Ã¢â‚¬ . On June 17, 1972 five men were arrested at 2:30a.m, Bernard Barker, Virgilio Gonzlez, Eugenio Martinez, James W. McCord Jr., and Frank Sturgis. These men were hired and or ordered to set up recording devices in the offices of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate Hotel in Washington D.C. At their arrest â€Å"Police discovered walkie-talkies, 40 rolls of unexposed film, two 35-milimeter cameras, lock picks, tear gas, and bugging devices that apparently were capable of picking up both telephone and room conversations† (Bernstein, and Woodward ). When the hearing of these men finally took place, things began to unfold. When asked, each of the men revealed some connection to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The men were â€Å"hired hands, on call to take care of the agency’s â€Å"less tasteful work† †. This obviously raised some eyebrows in other areas of the government, but Nixon told the White House press secretary to dismiss the inciden t as a third-rate burglary. This, although did not stop reporters from investigating further, in fact, the statement only made reporters like Bob Woodward, and Carl Bernstein pursue the truth of the matter further. What was Watergate? That was the question reporters were asking. No one quite knew what it was. Some took the president’s word, and simply dismissed it as a third-rate burglary. Others, like the famous Woodward and Bernstein pursued the truth of the burglary. At the arrest, two of the five men involved in the break-in, had an address book that â€Å"contained the name and phone number of a Howard E. Hunt, with small notations â€Å"W. House† and â€Å"W.H† † (Bernstein, and Woodward ). Now the question had been raised; what business did members of the CIA, specializing in bugging, have with the Whitehouse? As the reporter’s investigation continued, they found, through FBI sources, that the Whitehouse had taken over possession of the Watergate investigation files. The whole scandal was falling apart, and the truth was becoming clearer in the eyes of the media and more importantly the eyes of the American people. The scandal had become so sh ocking, that the legislative and judiciary branches felt a pressing need to step in, and take control of the executive branch. As more revelations occurred, the other branches of the government became more and more involved in the investigative process. As the investigation continued, it was revealed that Nixon had installed a taping system in the Whitehouse, to record all conversations that took place. After this revelation, it became a certain urgency to get a hold of the tapes. After all, if Nixon or any other Whitehouse official was involved in the Watergate scandal, then their voices would be on the tape, if not then they would be free of conviction. The Nixon tapes were under fire, the prosecution needed to get their hands on it. The tapes were declared significant for the grand jury’s criminal investigation. This was the first time anyone had ever subpoenaed the president, and Nixon received two on the same day. He got one from the committee and one from the prosecutor, Archibald Cox (Emery 576). At this point, Nixon was claiming that neither Congress, nor Cox had the right to demand evidence from the executive branch, and said it was â€Å"vital to national security†. Nixon’s refusal to hand the tapes over, forced the Senate Committee to come up with a way of forcing Nixon to hand the tapes over. After all, Nixon controlled the Department of Justice, the FBI, and the Armed Forces. Nixon’s position as president started to cause problems, for the Senate. They had come to realize that they were at a stand still and Nixon had the upper hand. His apparent control over major parts of the government was becoming a hindrance. The committee was desperate for a plan to obtain the recorded tapes, and a solution was finally given by the prosecution. The plan was to â€Å"sue for the tapes in federal court†. The Senate Committee agreed to this solution and helped the prosecution follow through. The lawsuit went to the same judge as the one who was overseeing the Watergate trial. The judge â€Å"charged the president to turn over the tapes to the prosecutor† (Emery 576). The Whitehouse appealed to the Federal Court of appeals. The court ruled in favor of the judge, and demanded the tapes out of Nixon. This enraged Nixon; after all, Cox was an employee of the executive branch, and was challenging his authority. Thus, Nixon ordered the Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Cox. He refused and resigned. Nixon then asked the deputy to fire Cox. The deputy also resigned. Nixon finally asked a third-ranking Justice Department official to fire Cox, and become the new Attorney General. He agreed. This incident was called â€Å"The Saturday Massacre†. This brought a lot of pressure down on Nixon; he therefore agre ed to appoint a new prosecutor. The prosecutor was Leon Jaworski. The prosecutor agreed under the condition that Nixon could not fire him. So, as the trial continued, the tapes were examined and as a result an alarming discovery was made. There was an 18-minute gap in one of the tapes (Emery 576). â€Å"Prosecutor Jaworski demanded that the Whitehouse turn over 69 more tapes. Once again the Supreme Court ruled that Nixon had to supply the subpoenaed tapes† (Emery 576). On July 27th- 30th, the Judiciary Committee suggested that Nixon be impeached on three charges: obstruction of justice, abuse of presidential power, and trying to hinder the impeachment process by defying committee subpoenas. The committee voted on his impeachment, and the vote went against him. Therefore Nixon had to stand trial before the U.S Senate and was found guilty. In the aftermath, the Whitehouse released a transcript of the tapes. In it, there was a conversation between Nixon and Haldeman (Nixon’s chief of staff). Nixon told Haldeman to cease the FBI’s investigation of Watergate. This â€Å"made it clear that Nixon was involved in the cover-up from the beginning† (Emery 576). At nine-o’clock on August 8, 1974 Nixon made his last speech as president. He only admitted to losing the two branches’ support. At noon, the Vice-president, Gerald R. Ford, was inaugurated. He told the American people in his speech that â€Å"†¦our long national nightmare is over† (Emery 576) â€Å"President Ford insisted he had no intention of pardoning Nixon† (Brown Tindall, and Emory Shi 1264). But on September 1974, Ford issued the pardon to Nixon, explaining that this was necessary to end the national obsession (especially by the media) with Watergate. Following the Watergate Scandal, Congress legislature limited the actual input any president had in external affairs. The War Powers Act (1973) â€Å"requires a president to inform Congress within forty-eight hours if U.S. troops are deployed in combat abroad and to withdraw troops after sixty days unless Congress specifically approves their stay† (Brown Tindall, and Emory Shi 1264). Congress also had a reaction to Nixon’s â€Å"executive privileges† by strengthening the 1966 Freedom of Information Act. By the end of 1975, amendments to the Freedom of Information Act had become effective and the Privacy Act of 1974 also became effective. â€Å"The passage of these laws provided for broad access to FBI records which previously had been severely limited. In the past twenty plus years, the FBI has handled over 300,000 requests and over six million pages of FBI documents have been released to the public in paper format.† (Freedom of Information Act (USA)). The Watergate Scandal, and the parties involved played a key factor in the shaping of the executive branch that we have today. Limitations and guidelines have been set; there is no longer a threat of the pushing of boundaries by the president, his appointed cabinet, or the federal agencies that are in direct control of the executive branch. Although these acts of legislation have limited the executive branch, they have not hindered the job of the presidency in anyway. As you can see, checks and balances have been a key focal point from the creation of American democracy. Therefore we must trust the other branches of our government to do their jobs and look out for the safety of our country and exercise their power of maintaining the balance of powers. Research Papers on Effecting America One Scandal at a TimeThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationQuebec and CanadaNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into Asia19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UsePETSTEL analysis of IndiaUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Where Wild and West Meet

Principles of Health and Social Care Practice Essay - 2

Principles of Health and Social Care Practice - Essay Example Promoting effective communication (the ability to communicate with colleagues and service users) is a vital portion of being a care worker. Acknowledging individuals personal identities and beliefs is very important. In a multicultural and a multi ethnic society, it is important and fair that care workers are aware of cultural differences of people, respect them and assist keep their individual identities. 1.2 The procedures that are adopted in ABC Care Home.It is always the responsibility of the staff to keep the procedures to guard the health and social care users. They have the responsibility to guard clients, the public, patients and colleagues from the peril of harm (Basford & Oliver, 2011, p.101).   They should work precisely so that they can be in a position to guard them from harm. They should see to it that their behavior does not place patients and clients at peril; even they must be concerned about their health aspect as well. They have to guard the consumers of the serv ices from safety and health issue, to guard the disable, people’s right from illness and infection and from abuse (create a harmless environment). The safety and health work dangers at ABC can be in form of a wet or slippery flow, rearrangement of furniture and equipment, hanging electric wires, dirty facilities and sharing of objects that may contribute to infection (Alcock, May, & Rowlingson, 2008, p.72). It is always the responsibility of the staff to keep the procedures to guard the health and social care users.

THE ECHR AS A LIVING INSTRUMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

THE ECHR AS A LIVING INSTRUMENT - Essay Example One of the powerful interpretive tools used by the EctHR has been the conceptualization of the ECHR as a living instrument. It is settled case law that the ECHR is â€Å"a living instrument which must be interpreted in light of present-day conditions.† A critique of judicial activism may criticize the use of the living instrument rule as an impermissible intrusion of the Strasbourg Court into the policy-making domain. This paper analyses this proposition and the development of the living instrument rule in light of Strasbourg jurisprudence in respect of two articles of the ECHR, article 3 and article 8. Article 3 of the ECHR states that no one shall be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. The original Court began the articulation of the living instrument methodology in the well-known case of Tyrer v. United Kingdom when it was required to determine the compatibility of judicial corporeal punishment with article 3 prohibition on cruel and degrading punishment. The Government of the Isle of Man argued that judicial corporal punishment was acceptable to the inhabitants of the island. However, the Court held that: â€Å"... the Convention is a living instrument which, as the Commission rightly stressed, must be interpreted in the light of present-day conditions. In the case now before it the Court cannot but be influenced by the developments and commonly accepted standards in the penal policy of the member States of the Council of Europe in this field.

Chinese Students in The United States Of America Research Paper

Chinese Students in The United States Of America - Research Paper Example These students have used available opportunities and vacancies to do further studies and get quality education in the United States of America. Other than sending students to study in the United States of America, China sends its students to study in other western countries like France, England, Australia and Canada. The numbers have greatly increased over the recent years. Accreditation of United States education programs almost everywhere in the world is the biggest reason as to why students from all nations of the world go for studies in the United States of America (Lin, 2). Chinese students are not an exemption and they view their universities not as good as those in the United States. Apart from a few universities in China like the Tsinghua University, Perking University and Fudan University whose programs can be recognized the world over; others are inferior to those in the United States of America and those in the western countries. This makes Chinese students flock the Unite d States of America in search of universities that will offer them the opportunity to study in better universities (Bartlett and Fischer, 1). The economic growth of China has seen a rise in the numbers of parents who can afford the expensive studies in the United States of America. Those parents who value education and belong to the wealthy class send their children to study abroad. The United States of America’s education system is seen as prestigious and hence some more parents send their children not only to study in the US, but also as a way of showing prestige. According to Chen Yafeng an Ambow Education operation director in a Chinese consultancy firm involved in preparation of students willing to study abroad, while Chinese student doing studies abroad relied on scholarship in the past, there was a rise in the number of students paying their full tuition to about 60 percent (Spak, 1). As mentioned earlier, lack of many good universities in China is a major contributor of students from the country to going to the United States in search of good universities that could offer them courses that they want. Universities in China cannot accommodate all the high school graduates and hence a bigger number of those locked out of the universities are forced to look for alternatives. While most of them go to study in colleges to achieve diplomas, others feel that Chinese diplomas will lock them out while looking for jobs. They also feel that a diploma is not a good qualification as a degree and hence opt to going to foreign countries to study. This group of students forms a large potion in many universities in the United States of America (Lin, 2). Other Students from China have also gone to study in the United States in search of a more flexible and accommodative programs that allows innovation and creativity. Chinese students like Ariel Lai who studies at the University of Southern California observed that studies abroad allowed someone to learn many pract ical things, which included topics relating to life after school, something she believed that Chinese universities could not offer. One Chinese female student (Zhen Ye) doing studies in the United States of America observed that though there are various Majors for Chinese students in China to choose from, the universities offered low flexibility more so after one started school. She also observed that she could not choose the course to do since the courses was predesigned

Estimating power and privilege Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Estimating power and privilege - Essay Example When I think about my friend, I find that I use the same criteria to classify him. I think that the reason I do this is because it draws distinctions or highlights the differences between us and provides a framework for identifying both similarities and differences. He is a male, I am a female; there is a multitude of implied sociological, as well as biological, differences in that category. My family has lived in America for the last seven generations and his grandfather came to the United States from Mexico; the cultural identity distinctions are numerous, as is our reference grid for perceiving the world around us. I am single and he is married; this relationship status implies an enormous number of social factors that define us both in different ways. As for intelligence, we are both pursuing degrees in higher education; for this specific comparison, this is more of a distinction that highlights our similarities over our differences. Finally, I am here and he is in Los Angeles; which means that our daily lives look very different. These identity definitions ar e important for the purposes of understanding similarities and differences. I think the benefits of privilege, and certainly the abuse of power, are often found within these categories. In looking at the abuse side of things, i.e., discrimination based on gender or ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc., I can see that any classification system can be abused; but I don't see any other way to make the identifications and distinctions that help me perceive the world. b. Relative Power and Privilege. In a similar way as identity classification, my estimation of my own personal situation in terms of privilege follows similar distinction. On the whole, I would rate my personal circumstances as a seven. The criteria I use to give myself this rating are; living conditions, career opportunities, and recreational pursuits. I guess my thinking about my personal privilege status is guided by the things for which I am grateful. That is why I chose the categories above. I feel very privileged to have a safe and secure place to live, and plenty of food to eat; which makes me more privileged than much of the world's population. I am also very grateful for the career opportunities that lay before me, particularly after I finish my education. I know that I have more control over my future as a result of several privileges I enjoy. Finally, I chose recreational pursuits because those things make me happy. One reason my privilege score is so high is that I enjoy doing certain things and, when I engage in those activities, my quality of life and general mood are enhanced. If I were to have no time to play, because I had to spend every waking minute looking for food or working to stay alive, I would not be the privileged person I am right now. I don't know that I specifically rejected any other criteria for establishing my status, as much as I just followed my own internal logic. Certainly, there are many other categories of comparison that could be used to quantify privilege or power; but for me, the most important ones are those that directly impact my daily life and happiness. As I noted previously, my sense of privilege foll

Anthropology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Anthropology - Essay Example The investigation of any culture must be implemented carefully and without any preferences in order to define the most important peculiarities of each of them. Traditionally, cultural relativity used double hypothetical method called historical particularism. The term implies that any culture must be studied deeply. This inference is very important not only for anthropology but also for other sciences (Zechenter, 1997). The strong point of  cultural  relativity is that it lets people stick to their ethical principles without being judged by other communities, which have other principles. If people deny this method, they will appear in difficult situation: if they have constant unchanging moral rules, they criticize the communities with other values and maybe even try to make them adapt the moral rules of other community. That will make cross-cultural relations difficult (Zechenter, 1997). Cultural  relativity provides the opportunity to avoid this complexity. According to it, the ethical code of one group of people can be applicable only to their community, that’s why the communities can’t impose their moral standards upon each other. Really, every society has its own values which should be respected by peoples from other cultures (Flew, 1968). When a person comes to another country, he should respect the moral principles existing in this society, but it does not mean that he must adopt them. Every culture has its ethical values which are worth-studying and must be respected by other cultures in certain times (Zechenter, 1997). For example, for our society equal opportunities at work are an ethical requirement, however it is improper in other countries. In the times when patience is considered to be the most essential this can be called a good arrangement (Zechenter, 1997). Nevertheless, the abovementioned point of  cultural  relativity represents also

Estimating power and privilege Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Estimating power and privilege - Essay Example When I think about my friend, I find that I use the same criteria to classify him. I think that the reason I do this is because it draws distinctions or highlights the differences between us and provides a framework for identifying both similarities and differences. He is a male, I am a female; there is a multitude of implied sociological, as well as biological, differences in that category. My family has lived in America for the last seven generations and his grandfather came to the United States from Mexico; the cultural identity distinctions are numerous, as is our reference grid for perceiving the world around us. I am single and he is married; this relationship status implies an enormous number of social factors that define us both in different ways. As for intelligence, we are both pursuing degrees in higher education; for this specific comparison, this is more of a distinction that highlights our similarities over our differences. Finally, I am here and he is in Los Angeles; which means that our daily lives look very different. These identity definitions ar e important for the purposes of understanding similarities and differences. I think the benefits of privilege, and certainly the abuse of power, are often found within these categories. In looking at the abuse side of things, i.e., discrimination based on gender or ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc., I can see that any classification system can be abused; but I don't see any other way to make the identifications and distinctions that help me perceive the world. b. Relative Power and Privilege. In a similar way as identity classification, my estimation of my own personal situation in terms of privilege follows similar distinction. On the whole, I would rate my personal circumstances as a seven. The criteria I use to give myself this rating are; living conditions, career opportunities, and recreational pursuits. I guess my thinking about my personal privilege status is guided by the things for which I am grateful. That is why I chose the categories above. I feel very privileged to have a safe and secure place to live, and plenty of food to eat; which makes me more privileged than much of the world's population. I am also very grateful for the career opportunities that lay before me, particularly after I finish my education. I know that I have more control over my future as a result of several privileges I enjoy. Finally, I chose recreational pursuits because those things make me happy. One reason my privilege score is so high is that I enjoy doing certain things and, when I engage in those activities, my quality of life and general mood are enhanced. If I were to have no time to play, because I had to spend every waking minute looking for food or working to stay alive, I would not be the privileged person I am right now. I don't know that I specifically rejected any other criteria for establishing my status, as much as I just followed my own internal logic. Certainly, there are many other categories of comparison that could be used to quantify privilege or power; but for me, the most important ones are those that directly impact my daily life and happiness. As I noted previously, my sense of privilege foll

Conduct of Monetary Policy in Kuwait Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Conduct of Monetary Policy in Kuwait - Essay Example The International Monetary Fund (IMF) noted: "The fastest pace of economic expansion since the 1990 Gulf war, combined with the oil-related terms of trade gains, has boosted per capita income by 34.5% during 2003-04 and helped build up assets for future generations at a record pace." It added: "With oil prices likely to remain firm over the medium-term, Kuwait's medium-term outlook has improved and is likely to remain favourable, supported by large fiscal and current-account surpluses, and low inflation. The Kuwait economy is characterized by sound creditworthiness which in turn reflects sustained macroeconomic stability, good governance, twin surpluses (the government budget and current-account), manageable domestic debt (17% of GDP in 2005), the sophisticated banking sector and huge net (official) external assets. Overall GDP growth has been increasing at a steady rate from 2001 to 2005 due to the stability of the money supply. Through a judicious application of effective open market operations, the central bank was able to mop up excess liquidity in the system resulting in a stable economic growth. The Central Bank of Kuwait (CBK) has imposed a ceiling on the credit to deposit ratio. It was implemented in order to address prudential concerns over rapid expansion of credit to the private sector in recent years without a parallel increase in bank deposits. Kuwaiti banks are, however, heavily capitalised and liquid. The capital adequacy ratio remained comfortable (17.3% as of end-September 2004), well above its minimum regulatory level (12%). In 2004-05, asset quality improved further and net profits and returns on equity/total assets also rose significantly. The Kuwait central bank had reined in liquidity growth in order to attain macroeconomic stability. This policy resulted in a minimal incr ease in M2 supply from 9646.3 million Kuwait dinar (KD) in 2001 to 10401.2 million KD in 2002. This strict monetary policy resulted in a high increase in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate of 11584 .5 million KD in 2002 to 14253.5 million KD in 2003. At the same time, inflation remained at respectable levels from 0.89 percent to 0.98 percent during the same period. The GDP climbed steadily from 14253.5 million KD in 2003 to 17466 million KD in 2004. The M2 supply increased only slightly from 10401.2 million KD in 2003 to 11655.2 million KD in 2004. The GDP scored a big leap from 17466 million KD in 2004 to 23588 million KD in 2005. Steady monetary policies kept the M2 supply level from 11655.2 million KD in 2004 to 13088.2 million KD in 2005.On the macroeconomic front, the authorities have pursued prudent monetary/fiscal policies, thus underpinning price stability and the exchange rate peg. Consumer price rises have averaged just 1.4% annually over 2000-05, thanks to a str onger currency and subdued import prices. The Kuwait central bank has maintained very stable exchange rate levels to maintain stable inflation rates. This effective policy has resulted in minimal inflation rates. The Kuwait dinar has been appreciating vis-a-vis the US dollar from 2001 to 2005. The exchange rate was 307.36 dinar to 1 US$ dollar in 2001 compared to 299.7 dinar to 1 US$ in 2002. Inflation rate at 2002 was only .89 percent. The local currency further appreciated from 299.7 dinar to 1

Everyone can learn from their mistakes Essay Example for Free

Everyone can learn from their mistakes Essay The circumstances when the two characters first meet are quite different. When we first meet Pip he is an innocent young boy. He is crying when he meets the convict. He is said to be a small bundle of shivers. This makes Pip appear small, weak, scared and lonely. But Abel Magwith is a dark and lonely person who is a dare devil and an escaped convict he is said to be a fearful man with a great iron on his leg. The circumstances are different in chapter 39 than in chapter one. Pip is now a man and Abel Magwith is a lot different, when the two characters first meet, Abel is a fearful man and Pip is angel like, but now Abel is nicer, he is still a convict on the penalty of death, but is nicer towards Pip. The setting in the first chapter is eerie and builds suspense. The writer says the dark flat wilderness, the fact that it is dark shows that the air is consumed by fear and unawareness. Also the word wilderness shows that the area was unsightly and not unmanaged plus it shows that the area would be scary and unknown to both Pip and to the reader. But in chapter 39 the setting is quiet and a lot brighter. The surroundings are lighter and the characters are happier. They also show a grave contrast of Pip as a boy to when he is a man. The settings in the two chapters give the reader different views on the characters. The settings in chapter 1 give Pip an effect of an innocent little boy who cries a lot, and it makes Abel Magwith appear an old, dark man that bullies and threatens little kids. And in chapter 39, Pip appears stronger, no longer scared of the convict. Abel appears older, he seems scared, in one part he breaks out in tears, that shows that he is no longer evil and is now more emotional which helps Pip be less scared of him. Dickens uses language to really emphasize the presentation of the characters. Ill cut your throat, that line from the convict in Chapter 1 creates the impression that he is an evil and threatening man. But in chapter 39 he breaks out in tears and says to Pip that hes been sending all his money to him, to make a gentleman out of him. That creates an impression that he has changed, become more emotional and is no longer evil. In Pips line Dont cut my throat, sir, pray dont do it, sir, it shows that he is a weak little boy who prays for his life not to be taken from him. But now he is a man, a lot has changed for him; he is stronger and no longer scared of Abel Magwith. The relationship between the two characters changed in the two chapters. In the first chapter when Pip and Abel first meet, Pip is afraid of him because he is a very threatening man. But, in chapter 39 Abel appears less threatening; he is still an escaped convict but has appeared to have changed his ways. Overall, I think the story is about a lot more than just a young boy and a convict. I believe Dickens is trying to give a message to the reader. I think that the message he is trying to give is that everyone can learn from their mistakes and everyone has a good and bad side. The man had done wrong he was a convict but he has changed his ways and helps to aid the little boy, by sending him money, proving he has a good and caring side.

History Of Programming Languages Information Technology Essay

History Of Programming Languages Information Technology Essay Ford states that computers can only obey instructions that are issued to them.   In order for the instructions to be understood by both user and the computer there needs to be an interface to aid in the communication. This is where computer programming languages come in their primary function   is to aid the communication between the computer and the user. They provide a link between the human language and the machine language.   There is a huge variety of programming languages and each language has its own set of strengths and weaknesses and is geared with specific applications. Even though there is a huge number of computer languages out there today, computer languages are a fairly new field, since the first high-level languages were written in the 1950s, around the time computers were invented.   The earliest computers were programmed in binary so the set of instructions was just a series of 0 and 1. The interface back then was low-level language when a computer is given a series of instruction via a program, the computer executes the task and the interface in which the user communicates with the computer can either be a low- level or a high-level language. A high -level language does not communicate directly to the computer. Rather, high level languages is a language with a series of abstractions. Higher level languages allow the programmer to communicate more conveniently to the computer. Programming languages, together with their compilers span the gap between low-level, or binary, instructions that helps the machine understand and the high level languages, which allows the programmer to be more expressive. In software development, the programming language must be compatible with the design methodology at the design stage of software development. A facility is viewed as consisting of tools and methodologies and these should be compatible for maximum benefits. It is necessary to examine the relationship of the programming language to other components of a software development facility the first programming languages were designed for programming rather than for software development. However, even if a language was not designed with the goal of software production in mind, it must be evaluated on that criterion because that is the desired end. As a result, the software development process has imposed language design goals. First, reliability users should feel comfortable in using the programming language even in the presence of infrequent of undesirable events like hardware or software failures. This is also linked to correctness software is correct if it behaves according to its specifications the more rigorously and unambiguously the specifications are set down, the more convincingly program correctness can be proved. Reliability consists of readability, writability in the language and the ability to deal with exceptions, or so that the system is predictable even in abnormal situation. Second, maintainability software costs have risen and increasingly complex software systems have been developed, so economic considerations have reduced the possibility of throwing away existing software and developing similar applications from scratch. Existing software must be modified to meet new requirements. Examples of a language being modifiable is Modifiable examples are allowing constants to be given symbolic names, or just altering something in one line of the program to be changed and implemented in many other places in the program.Third, efficiency always a goal for the execution of any software system, and affects both the programming language and the choice of algorithms to be used.Efficiency is no longer measured by the execution of speed and space. The initial effort required to produce a program and the effort required in maintenance are also components of efficiency. Language supports efficiency if it has qualities of writability, maintainability, and optimizability. Optimizability is the quality of allowing automatic program optimization. This is important because a lot of the time traditionally spent in programming is spent on trying to find an efficient way of doing things. This should be removed from the early stages of the programming. So a developer should first write a program that is demonstrably correct, th en through a series of efficiency improving transformations, modify the program to obtain a correct and efficient one. Generally, features that promote optimizability hamper readability.These three goals can be achieved by appropriate tools and should be the certain characteristics of the programming language. Technically speaking, users use two sets of commands when they program on a modern computer; one for the operating system and one for the programming language. The operating system is basically a program which is loaded each time the computer is turned on and provides the set of instructions for the programmer to control operations in the computer. These operations include logging in, loading files, displaying information, and running a program. The operating system program provides the facilities to allow communication between the user and the computer to be initiated and continued. A translation program is needed to convert a programming language to translate a higher level programming language to the executable machine code so that the computer processor may understand. The two means of translating higher level languages are by compilers and interpreters. Compilers take the source code of the higher level programming language and converts it into object code (the 1s and 0s). This converts the entire program in one go and then resaves it in its converted form.   he translated object code is then linked and run. One of the advantages of using a compiler is that there are no errors in the syntax when the program is run since it would have shown up earlier at the translation stage. However, a compiler requires space to accommodate both the source and object files. On the other hand, interpreters look at the program statement by statement and translate and execute the single statement before going on to the next. This means that translation and the execution happ en simultaneously, not separately as with the compiler. The main advantage of the interpreter is that it is more effective in   debugging programs. However, interpreters suffer from poor execution speeds than compilers since each line has to be translated and executed, whereas the compilers translates it all at once. Programs, on the other hand,   have been around since the first computing device. The oldest artificial computing device, other than the abacus, is the Blaise Pascal/s Arithmetic Machine. Before computer programming languages were made, paper tapes and punch cards which held complicated weaving patterns for the loom Tabulating Machine Company Looms by Jacquard in 1710. A century   later, Charles Babbage starting building a computing machine and the Analytical Machine. In the 20th century, Herman Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine a while later. His machine Tabulators were used to speed up the counting and sorting punch cards. In the early 1940s J. Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly started building the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator), which was completed in 1946. Around the same time, near the end of World War II, Konrad Zuse began building his second generation electromechanical computers in Germany. After Zuse successfully completed building his com puter in 1945, he realized that he had no additional equipment for repairs or any kind of hardware development. He then turned his focus from hardware toward designing programming languages. Zuse is often referred to as the father of todays computer programming due to his contribution to the first programing language which was powerful enough to be able to express sophisticated programs. History of Programming Languages Software development process originally consisted only of the coding phase. The computer was mainly used in the early days in scientific applications an application was programmed by one person. The problem to be solved, like a differential equation, was well-understood. There was not much need for requirements analysis or design specification or even maintenance. The first programmable computers only spoke machine language, which is well known to be unreadable and tedious to work with. After, programming languages evolved to assembly languages which quickly became popular and   lot easier to work with. A disadvantage is that the assembly language is very limited since it only provides facilities already in the machine code. The assembly language gives the programmer access to the machine code instructions and the macros. The macros offers a single instruction to give a combination a combination of several machine code instructions and provide common requirements.   The introduction of assembly language in the 1950s paved the way and provided the key to later productions of of high level computer programming languages.The machine code and the assembly language are typically known as low-level languages. Assembly language offers the programmer the advantage of being able to specify where the programmer wants to allocate where the memory and data will start. This relieves some responsibility of the programmer to keep careful control over the memory. High level languages, on the other hand, take all responsibility away from the programmer. Rather, the use of variable names allow the programmer to reference particular parts of a program.   When computers were first electronically created, the limitations from the hardware forced programmers to write programs that directly communicated with the computers machine code. This was the assembly language. The assembly language implemented the symbols and number representations from the machine codes. Working with assembly languages was a very tedious and inefficient task. Assemblers created object code, or a system of instructions that executed directly by the computers central processing unit (CPU). An advantage to writing a program in the assembly language was the that it took less time to execute since it was a direct execution from the CPU. However, there were many disadvantages of writing programs in the assembly languages. Assembly language   associated the machine-language code to symbolic representations in the human language. This was one of the reasons why, it was so tedious to program with the assembly language. A programmer needed to be highly skilled and famili ar with assembly language to communicate with the assembly code. Additionally, written programs in assembly language were very prone to errors.   The assembly languages are often referred to low-level languages since it execute directly from the CPU. In order to solve this problem, a high-level programming language was created with a set of instructions more closely associated to the human language.   FORTRAN The very first high-level programming language was FORTRAN, which stands for FORmula TRANslation , It was developed in 1956 (first manual appeared in 1956, but first developed in 1954) by John Backus, a worker at IBM.  FORTRANs goal was to ease the pain of writing in assembly language.  When FORTRAN was first introduced, it was looked on suspiciously since almost all the programmers then only worked with the machine code and assembly languages. The programmers at that time had an initial belief that programs compiled from high-level language would be less efficient than those written at low-level. In order to persuade potential users of the benefits of working with a high-level language, Backus designed an excellent compiler for FORTRAN so the programs were just as efficient as those written in low-level languages. This was the best compiler for many years.   Ã‚   FORTRAN soon became popular because it provided a realistic and desirable alternatives to low-level language programming for mathematical and scientific applications. This programming language was also the first to be widely used. However, one of the limitations of FORTRAN was that it was specifically oriented toward the IBM 704 machine. This is a major set-back since the language syntax contains many idiosyncrasies from the IBM 704 machine.  From a pure programming language design standpoint this is a cardinal sin but historically, it is understandable. FORTRAN is known for its efficiency. Over the years, FORTRAN had been upgraded and developed into FORTRAN -II,  FORTRAN -IV,  FORTRAN -66, and  FORTRAN -77. Early versions of FORTRAN largely restricted users. On the other hand, the later versions allowed more flexibility, but since it has adapted, it is not as easy to use as it should be. The development of the fast string processing makes FORTRAN more of a general-purpose la nguage than it used to be, but it is still described as a mathematical or scientific language.   Lisp In contrast to FORTRAN, Lisp was first developed in 1956 as a functional language for list processing. LISP is one of the most used of the old, classical programming languages developed in the 1950s. The design was motivated by the need of Artificial Intelligence researchers for an appropriate language. But gradually replaced or challenged in AI applications by Prolog. There are very few  language  constraints in LISP.   Lists are the sole data structure and the only operations are function invocations, conditional expressions and recursion. Iteration is achieved by  recursion. Lisp is one of the very few functional as opposed to procedural programming languages.  A procedural language requires the user to express each step in performing an action whereas a functional language merely specifies what has been done.   Cobol Another first generation computer program language that impacted the design of recent languages was Cobol (COmmon Business Oriented Language). Cobol was created by Grace Hopper in 1960 and was heavily supported by the U.S. government. Cobol was originally designed to be the common business language in the nation. The design of Cobol was discussed in the pentagon with 6 computer manufacturers.   This maybe why the language is still in use even though it is very wordy and lacking in logical modules resulting in a unique English-like style that some have described as verbose. One of the advantages of   Cobol is is certain applications involving processing dollars and cents. Other advancements in Cobol include the character string data. Cobol is generally used globally in the government and military. Overall, Cobol was, and is still important because of its use for business applications. The first three high level languages mentioned FORTRAN, LISP, and COBOL were and still widely used, or have descendants that are widely used. These languages, with their diverse purposes, set the foundation for most of todays programming languages. BASIC Once the use of high-level languages became more widespread, programmers wanted to create   a programming language that would serve as an easy introduction to FORTRAN.   As a result, BASIC was designed by Thomas Kurtz and John Kemeny   at Dartmouth College in 1963-1964 as an easy and interactive language. However, now BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is the most used language on microcomputers.The main purpose was to be a simple introduction which would prepare students to use FORTRAN later. BASIC was easier to program and had a user-friendly syntax than FORTRAN. The only aspect in which FORTRAN is better than BASIC is that it FORTRAN has more advanced features. BASIC is a general purpose language.Since the earliest use of BASIC was in education, the original language was fairly primitive and had only single variable names. However, people discovered that BASIC could be used as an applications programming language.   Interestingly enough, BASIC was not very popular when it first came out. However, microcomputers adopted BASIC as the preferred language since it was an interpretive language. Also, BASIC, in new forms, is still widely used. For example, BASIC is the foundation and large influence for languages like Microsoft Visual Basic and the object-oriented language Visual Basic .NET. Algol-60   Many other programs sprang up to improve the FORTRAN language. Algol-60 was created in  1958 as an improvement of FORTRAN . Then it was then redesigned, improved, and the final report was published in 1960. The key features of Algol-60 are that the syntax and the semantics are more orthogonal and that the language syntax is defined formally. This language is one of the most ingenious language definition efforts in the early days of programming languages, but never received widespread acceptance. The main language innovations are that Algol implemented a nested block structure, where code sequences and their associated declarations could be grouped into blocks without the need to be separate, explicitly named procedures. Also, Algol featured lexical scoping where a block can consist of private variables, procedures and functions but is invisible to code outside of the block, which is mainly information hiding. It is argued that Algol 60 is an obvious milestone to the development of programming languages because of its introduction of key concepts and its first use of formal notation for syntax. A large portion of the theoretical, practical and compiler work since Algols introduction has used Algol as the foundation. The main flaws, however, were the omission of IO and to a lesser degree the costly parameter passing method By Name. There are many improvements to the Algol-60 such as the Algo-W which was designed in the mid 1960s. Algol-W is very closely related to the Algol-60 even though they are not compatible with each other. The greatest difference between the Algol-W and the Algol-60 was that parameters no longer passes by name and that the For Statement was redesigned. The next three programming languages Pascal, C and Prolog, developed in 1970 and 1972 respectively, are some of the key languages of the period of a boom of programming languages, though C and Prolog spawned meaningful descendant languages. Most importantly, this period was when language paradigms, or certain styles were created. The paradigms are object-oriented programming, imperative programming, logic programming, and functional programming, and some may add the concurrent and database paradigms. This period of programming development also spurred the great goto and structured programming debate where structured programming forced structure on the programmer in language development. However, there is a general consensus that the goto statement should not be used because it has the potential of making programs hard to read because a user will have to jump around in a program to search for all the targets of goto statements and the existence of goto statements complicates automat ic optimization. Pascal One of the largest criticisms with the early computer programming languages were that it was not portable. Languages like BASIC was non-standard in nature. BASIC programs written in one system   often had to be completely rewritten for another make of a computer. To solve this problem, Pascal was designed between 1968 and 1970 by Niklaus Wirth of Zurich. Pascal was strongly influenced by Algo-w, a close relative to Algo-60. Pascal was intended as a teaching tool for illustrating the proper design data structures and structured statements. One of the greatest advantages in Pascal is its portability. Unlike FORTRAN and BASIC, Pascal has a self-compiler which allows programs in Pascal to be moved from different systems. Additionally, Pascal was so well-suited for compiler writing that the CDC-660 compiler could translate the whole compiler in a few seconds. Pascal is also a well structured language because it allows a series of statement to be grouped together,   their programs are made to be very readable,   and they have a provision of versatile procedure and function facilities. Mayer (1988) states that Pascal is a too good a language for the modest aim for which it was invented (p. 10). The greatest limitations however, was that it was not designed with a specific area of application in mind. Therefore, Pascal is more of a general purpose language but lacks special features for particular application. C The programming language C was created by Dennis Ritchie in 1972. It is a general-purpose, not very high level language and   mainly used as the systems language for the operating system UNIX. The chief design goal of C was to be a tool for working programmers, and therefore useful. C is a very popular language for the development of applications since it is flexible, convenient, powerful, efficient, and portable. Since it is a modern language, C provides the comprehensive range of control structures needed to allow well-structured programs to be written. C does not behave like a typical high level language because it offers features similar to low level languages since it is very similar to the source code. Basically, C is a systems language that features low level access with high level operators. Prolog Prolog is a non-procedural language with a focus on logic programming. In a Prolog program, it is not only necessary to express how a problem is to be solved but its not even possible to express this. The programmer specifies only what has to be done and Prolog does the rest the program requires a data base of facts or knowledge the programmer will ask questions and Prolog responds with the list of all possible correct answers that are inferred from the data base of facts. Prologs clauses for establishing the data base can be executed in any order they can be run in parallel. As a result, Pascal became a natural candidate as the systems language on the Japanese fifth generation supercomputers, or inference engines because Pascal achieves considerable speed even though a typical, single Prolog operation consumes a lot of processor time. In general, Pascals main use was for general and educational purpose and supported structured programming. The next two programs, in particular Ada, reflect the period of language design where scaling up to large systems was big with the use of modules which also increased the use of generics, or generic programming constructs, which are parameterized modules. Also, the reduced instruction set computer (RISC) movement gave rise gearing hardware design from assembly programmers and for compilers resulting in more focus in compilation technology for high level programming languages. Ada In the 1980s additional computer program languages were created to match with the speed and efficiency advancement of the computer. In  1983   after almost a decade of careful study of previous errors in programming language design – promising  Ada  introduced. Ada was expected by some in the computer science field to be the first language with the potential of becoming the universal, almost exclusive language of the future for embedded systems. The focus of the design of Ada was driven by the U.S. Department of Defense, who wanted a program that would reduce the number of military standard languages.  Ada had  the unique advantage of having been defined as an American National Standard before any implementation became available, saving it from a proliferation of corrupted language versions.   Ada  incorporates Pascals best ideas and corrected errors and omissions and has a much wider range of applications than Pascal   also  Ada  is strongly typed.  Ad as  problems are that IO is not defined as part of the language etc. In general, Adas intended purpose was to be a general purpose, real-time language with embedded applications. C ++ Another computer program language that object-oriented and systems programming designed int he 1980s is C++. C++ was unique in that it tried to mix in the high-level language features with low-level language features, making it a medium-level language. C++ was created by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979 originally as C with Classes. In 1983, the name was changed to C ++. C++ is one of the most popular languages ever created and is widely used in the software industry. C++ is based off of C and it even compatible with C. The improvements of C++ from C is the addition of classes, exception handling, virtual functions, operator overloading, user-controlled free-store memory control, and improved type checking. Stroustrup designed C ++ as the ideal program to work with software. When  Stroustrup was working in Software Development, he found that the program Simula had very useful features, but the program was too slow to use. Heavily influenced by Simula, he based his improvements of C on fea tures in Simula and combined it with the speed and efficiency of C. However, there are some major criticisms of C++. Critics argue that C++ is too complicated. The language definition document of C ++ is almost three times as long as the language definition of C. Other drawbacks of C++ are that there are no features that create multi-threaded software and lacks a garbage collection. JAVA JAVA was created to simplify C ++ and was created due to the rise of the Web. JAVA was developed by James Gosling in 1991, and released in 1995. JAVA s syntax is heavily derived from C ++, but has a much simpler object model and has less low-level facilities.   Ã‚  The five goals of JAVA are: 1) Simple, object oriented, and familiar 2) Secure 3) Architecture neutral and portable 4) High performance 5) Interpreted, threaded, and dynamic.   In contrast to C ++, JAVA is  object-oriented, platform-independent, multi-threaded.   JAVA is used as a foundation of Web, network services, applications, and many embedded devices in addition to the programming language HTML. Another feature of JAVA is that it allows programmers to write software on one platform, also know as the hardware architecture, and run it on another platform. Overall, JAVA meets most its goals, it is familiar since it is closely related to C++ and its platform allows for JAVAs programs to be portable. It has features that are lacking in C ++ such as an automatic garbage collector to manage the Internet. One of the major drawbacks of JAVA, however, is that its run time is a bit slow. Also, the majority of JAVA is opened sourced. JAVA is one of the many new languages that appeared in the 1990s in response to the boom of the Internet. All the developed languages of this time were object-oriented languages. Other languages introduced at this time were PHP a nd Python. Convergence some languages may reach a dead end. The evolution of languages is convergence the space of possibilities is smaller and partly because mutations are not random language designers deliberately incorporate ideas from other languages. Current Issues with Programming Languages With the growing open source community, almost anyone can develop a programming language. However, this poses several problems. Graham explains that this may result in a type of developed language called top-heavy, which is a language with a poorly designed inner core but has very powerful libraries of code to solve for specific problems so the libraries are vastly more important than the core language. Also, Bjarne Stroustrup, the inventor of C++, points out some of the current issues with modern programming languages and software development. These days, average pieces of code have poor structure and programmers clearly dont think deeply about correctness, algorithms, data structures or maintainability. He said that today, most people dont actually read code. Developers concentrate on getting the job done by excessively using brute force and testing, though these are usually not enough. They become skilled in building reliable systems out of unreliable parts, and somehow, the syst em shapes into something minimally acceptable, even though the developers dont know how or why. The issue here is that developers need to pursue more correct, solid and secure systems instead of going the cheapest and fastest route that contain a lot of bugs. Today, developers are undereducated and under trained.   Programming languages should not be more complex than necessary, but they should not be decreased in level of expressiveness to serve people who can hardly understand the real problem to be solved and the concepts. Another issue is that it is difficult to implement incremental change directly related to real-world systems in academia. Theory and practice rarely meet researchers gear away from real-world software development to academic topics, and many developers ignore research results. If this could change, then possibly Stroustrups criticisms of todays development could change so that developers are more educated and develop more correct, maintainable and efficient code. More specifically, a current issue with programming languages is security and reliability. There are mechanisms being developed and implemented to add safety to languages like extended static checking, information flow control and static thread safety. A program is considered thread safe if it functions correctly during simultaneous execution by multiple threads so that there is no unwanted interaction between threads. Type safety and access control are also    Why are there so many programming languages? There are more than 8,500 total programming languages, according to HOPL (History Of Programming Languages). As demonstrated previously, the many thousand programming languages developed over the years is a result of the growing number of applications and uses for languages and also updated and revised versions of existing programming languages. Over the past years, more and more programming languages have been developed for application in different areas like nuclear power plants or patient monitoring systems, etc. Also, more and more programming languages have been developed for users with little or no computer background. Most programming languages, as mentioned before, are descendants of already existing ones (more economically feasible than creating new languages). One may argue that there is a self-perpetuating cycle that leads to the development of programming languages. Developers notice shortcomings in using their current programming language, make a list of the current annoyances and they look for a new, little known language that has a lot fewer of these annoyance. Then, the developers will drive the development   of the new language by contributing code, writing powerful libraries and spreading the word of their newly developed language so that it is implemented in their workplace and then after a while, these developers will notice shortcomings in their current programming language leading into the cycle. However, even though a newly developed programming language gets rid of shortcomings of its ancestor language, new shortcomings arise. To answer the question of why there are so many languages, computer scientists have explained the concept of a programming languages and their uses in analogies. A programming language can be seen as a tool like a certain type of saw or screwdriver that is specially designed and used for certain situations and problems. However, there are also overlaps in ways that some programming languages have many similarities or may be descendants of others. Certain classes of problems require, or can be solved more effectively with certain languages. In addition, each language can be seen as a form of expression programmers find certain languages easier to use or understand as their own unique way of expression. Paul Graham describes the notion of a programming language renaissance. Until the 1980s, only professors or corporate researchers had the ability to develop programming languages because their institutions had the financial means t

UK Education in Chaos :: social issues

UK Education in Chaos The British education system at one time was considered as one of the world's finest, admired and emulated by nations spanning several continents. Now it is in a state of disarray, reduced to nothing less than a complete shambles and plagued with corruption thanks to the implementation of the so-called Curriculum 2000. "Luck of the draw" is becoming an increasingly influential factor in today's exam lottery. This article's title draws on the sarcasm of a Warwick undergraduate contributing to the A Level newsgroup. Having been fortunate enough to take his A Levels back in the good old days when Edexcel was a reputable name, he was sceptical about the validity of students' current grievances. But the present state of the exam system means that come results day, such seemingly bizarre statements could be taken seriously. In all fairness, Edexcel were made the scapegoats [or "escape goats" as Jade from Big Brother would say] after a minor error by their printing company for a Maths paper resulted in disastrous consequences back in January. The media blitz that followed had everyone jumping on the bandwagon, venting all their fury at the exam board. Following the Yarm School head teacher's reporting of the unanswerable Maths question to the Beeb, suddenly allegations against poor old Edexcel reached new heights as they were blamed for more farcical errors. But with a sudden exponential increase in exam papers, these mistakes were inevitable. In fact such cock-ups had begun the previous summer, when in a much less publicised event, Question 1 in an AQA Physics A Level paper was impossible as it lacked essential data. From personal experience AQA's shoddy marking and virtually non-existent customer service means they deserve as much if not more criticism than Edexcel, with over 1 in 3 teachers finding AQA's marking quality unsatisfactory last year for some subjects. However, neither is at fault as much as the government, recklessly implementing these changes so that 24 million scripts had to be marked when teacher shortages.are clear. So why has Curriculum 2000 resulted in the introduction of these primary-school errors? Maybe because the endless module combinations and numerous resit opportunities have meant exam boards cannot sufficiently check through each and every one of the hundreds of different exam papers. AQA's report for January's A Level Literature paper casually mentioned how some of the options set had not been attempted by any candidates.